This paper presents a high-level, unclassified overview of threats and vulnerabilities surrounding the U.S. Navy's network systems and operations in cyberspace. This articles discussion of credibility focuses on how cyber operations could undermine the credibility of conventional and nuclear deterrence, rather than the challenge of how to establish credible deterrence using cyber capabilities. Prior to the 2018 strategy, defending its networks had been DODs primary focus; see The DOD Cyber Strategy (Washington, DC: DOD, April 2015), available at . Common practice in most industries has a firewall separating the business LAN from the control system LAN. Erik Gartzke and Jon R. Lindsay (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019), 104. 2. , ed. Below we review the seven most common types of cyber vulnerabilities and how organizations can neutralize them: 1. 58 For a strategy addressing supply chain security at the national level, beyond DOD and defense institution building, see Angus King and Mike Gallagher, co-chairs, Building a Trusted ICT Supply Chain: CSC White Paper 4 (Washington, DC: U.S. Cyberspace Solarium Commission, October 2020), available at . That means a thorough strategy is needed to preserve U.S. cyberspace superiority and stop cyberattacks before they hit our networks. . The consequences are significant, particularly in the nuclear command and control realm, because not employing a capability could undermine positive and negative control over nuclear weapons and inevitably the stability of nuclear deterrence. Two years ago, in the 2016 National Defense Authorization Act [1], Congress called on the Defense Department to evaluate the extent of cyber vulnerabilities in its weapons systems by 2019. (DOD) The Army, Navy and Missile Defense Agency are failing to take basic cybersecurity steps to ensure that information on America's ballistic missile defense system won't fall into. In some, but not all, vendor's control systems, manipulating the data in the database can perform arbitrary actions on the control system (see Figure 15). Cyber Defense Infrastructure Support. . Users are shown instructions for how to pay a fee to get the decryption key. Most Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) identify themselves and the vendor who made them. L. No. Every business has its own minor variations dictated by their environment. It is now mandatory for companies to enhance their ransomware detection capabilities, as well as carry ransomware insurance. This access can be directed from within an organization by trusted users or from remote locations by unknown persons using the Internet. However, the credibility conundrum manifests itself differently today. CISA cites misconfigurations and poor security controls as a common reason why hackers can get initial access to sensitive data or company systems due to critical infrastructure. Some reports estimate that one in every 99 emails is indeed a phishing attack. For instance, he probably could not change the phase tap on a transformer. Each control system vendor calls the database something different, but nearly every control system assigns each sensor, pump, breaker, etc., a unique number. The operator can interact with the system through the HMI displays to remotely operate system equipment, troubleshoot problems, develop and initiate reports, and perform other operations. Troops have to increasingly worry about cyberattacks while still achieving their missions, so the DOD needs to make processes more flexible. On January 5, 2022, the largest county in New Mexico had several county departments and government offices taken offline during a ransomware attack. The ultimate objective is to enable DOD to develop a more complete picture of the scope, scale, and implications of cyber vulnerabilities to critical weapons systems and functions. As adversaries cyber threats become more sophisticated, addressing the cybersecurity of DODs increasingly advanced and networked weapons systems should be prioritized. The challenge of securing these complex systems is compounded by the interaction of legacy and newer weapons systemsand most DOD weapons platforms are legacy platforms. Often it is the responsibility of the corporate IT department to negotiate and maintain long-distance communication lines. 2 (2016), 6673; Nye, Deterrence and Dissuasion, 4471; Martin C. Libicki, Cyberspace in Peace and War (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2016); Aaron F. Brantly, The Cyber Deterrence Problem, in 2018 10th International Conference on Cyber Conflict, ed. Specifically, the potential for cyber operations to distort or degrade the ability of conventional or even nuclear capabilities to work as intended could undermine the credibility of deterrence due to a reduced capability rather than political will.17 Moreover, given the secret nature of cyber operations, there is likely to be information asymmetry between the deterring state and the ostensible target of deterrence if that target has undermined or holds at risk the deterring states capabilities without its knowledge. There are three common architectures found in most control systems. The added strength of a data DMZ is dependent on the specifics of how it is implemented. Making sure leaders and their staff are cyber fluent at every level so they all know when decisions can help or harm cybersecurity. "In operational testing, DoD routinely found mission-critical cyber vulnerabilities in systems that were under development, yet program officials GAO met with believed their systems were secure and discounted some test results as unrealistic," GAO said. Erik Gartzke and Jon R. Lindsay, Thermonuclear Cyberwar,, Austin Long, A Cyber SIOP? 33 Austin Long, A Cyber SIOP? 5 For a notable exception, see Erik Gartzke and Jon R. Lindsay, eds., Cross-Domain Deterrence: Strategy in an Era of Complexity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019). In a typical large-scale production system utilizing SCADA or Distributed Control System (DCS) configuration there are many computer, controller and network communications components integrated to provide the operational needs of the system. The most common configuration problem is not providing outbound data rules. large versionFigure 5: Business LAN as backbone. Cyber threat activity recommended to be submitted as a voluntary report includes but is not limited to: Suspected Advance Persistent Threat (APT) activity; Compromise not impacting DoD information See James D. Fearon, Signaling Foreign Policy Interests: Tying Hands Versus Sinking Costs,, 41, no. The literature on nuclear deterrence theory is extensive. See, for example, Martin C. Libicki, Brandishing Cyberattack Capabilities (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2013); Brendan Rittenhouse Green and Austin Long, Conceal or Reveal? Nearly every production control system logs to a database on the control system LAN that is then mirrored into the business LAN. DOD Cybersecurity Best Practices for Cyber Defense. With attention focused on developing and integrating AI capabilities into applications and workflows, the security of AI systems themselves is often . On the communications protocol level, the devices are simply referred to by number. . By far the most common architecture is the two-firewall architecture (see Figure 3). 61 HASC, William M. (Mac) Thornberry National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2021: Conference Report to Accompany H.R. A single firewall is administered by the corporate IT staff that protects the control system LAN from both the corporate LAN and the Internet. 1636, available at . Risks stemming from nontechnical vulnerabilities are entirely overlooked in strategies and policies for identifying and remediating cyber vulnerabilities in DOD weapons systems. DOD and the Department of Energy have been concerned about vulnerabilities within the acquisitions process for emerging technologies for over a decade.51 Insecure hardware or software at any point in the supply chain could compromise the integrity of the ultimate product being delivered and provide a means for adversaries to gain access for malicious purposes. Erik Gartzke and Jon R. Lindsay (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019), 104. Foreign Intelligence Entity (FIE) is defined in DoD Directive 5240.06 as "any known or suspected foreign organization, person, or group (public, private, or . . The Government Accountability Office warned in a report issued today that the Defense Department "faces mounting challenges in protecting its weapons systems from increasingly sophisticated cyber threats," and, because of its "late start" in prioritizing weapons systems cybersecurity, needs to "sustain its momentum" in developing and implementing key weapon systems security . He reiterated . A mission-critical control system is typically configured in a fully-redundant architecture allowing quick recovery from loss of various components in the system. Moreover, the use of commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) technology in modern weapons systems presents an additional set of vulnerability considerations.39 Indeed, a 2019 DOD Inspector General report found that DOD purchases and uses COTS technologies with known cybersecurity vulnerabilities and that, because of this, adversaries could exploit known cybersecurity vulnerabilities that exist in COTS items.40. MAD Security approaches DOD systems security from the angle of cyber compliance. An official website of the United States government Here's how you know. Nevertheless, the stakes remain high to preserve the integrity of core conventional and nuclear deterrence and warfighting capabilities, and efforts thus far, while important, have not been sufficiently comprehensive. Scholars and practitioners in the area of cyber strategy and conflict focus on two key strategic imperatives for the United States: first, to maintain and strengthen the current deterrence of cyberattacks of significant consequence; and second, to reverse the tide of malicious behavior that may not rise to a level of armed attack but nevertheless has cumulative strategic implications as part of adversary campaigns. Tomas Minarik, Raik Jakschis, and Lauri Lindstrom (Tallinn: NATO Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence, 2018), available at ; Thomas Rid, Cyber War Will Not Take Place (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013). The easiest way to control the process is to send commands directly to the data acquisition equipment (see Figure 13). 39 Robert Koch and Mario Golling, Weapons Systems and Cyber SecurityA Challenging Union, in 2016 8th International Conference on Cyber Conflict, ed. See also Alexander L. George, William E. Simons, and David I. 3 (2017), 454455. But given the interdependent and networked nature of multiple independent weapons systems, merely assessing individual platforms misses crucial potential vulnerabilities that may arise when platforms interact with one another. At the same time, adversaries are making substantial investments in technology and innovation to directly erode that edge, while also shielding themselves from it by developing offset, antiaccess/area-denial capabilities.7 Moreover, adversaries are engaging in cyber espionage to discern where key U.S. military capabilities and systems may be vulnerable and to potentially blind and paralyze the United States with cyber effects in a time of crisis or conflict.8. , ed. Joint Force Quarterly 102. The cyber vulnerabilities that exist across conventional and nuclear weapons platforms pose meaningful risks to deterrence.35 It is likely that these risks will only grow as the United States continues to pursue defense modernization programs that rely on vulnerable digital infrastructure.36 These vulnerabilities present across four categories, each of which poses unique concerns: technical vulnerabilities in weapons programs already under development as well as fielded systems, technical vulnerabilities at the systemic level across networked platforms (system-of-systems vulnerabilities), supply chain vulnerabilities and the acquisitions process, and nontechnical vulnerabilities stemming from information operations. The Pentagon's concerns are not limited to DoD systems. These tasks are typically performed on advanced applications servers pulling data from various sources on the control system network. Past congressional action has spurred some important progress on this issue. Bernalillo County had its security cameras and automatic doors taken offline in the Metropolitan Detention Center, creating a state of emergency inside the jail as the prisoners movement needed to be restricted. One study found that 73% of companies have at least 1 critical security misconfiguration that could potentially expose them to an attack. 51 Office of Inspector General, Progress and Challenges in Securing the Nations Cyberspace (Washington, DC: Department of Homeland Security, July 2004), 136, available at . Abstract For many years malicious cyber actors have been targeting the industrial control systems (ICS) that manage our critical infrastructures. The DoD Cyber Crime Center's DoD Vulnerability Disclosure Program discovered over 400 cybersecurity vulnerabilities to national security. A surgical attacker needs a list of the point reference numbers in use and the information required to assign meaning to each of those numbers. 52 Manual for the Operation of the Joint Capabilities Integration and Development System (Washington, DC: DOD, August 2018). 6 Office of the Secretary of Defense, Annual Report to Congress: Military and Security Developments Involving the Peoples Republic of China 2020 (Washington, DC: DOD, 2020). several county departments and government offices taken offline, 4 companies fall prey to malware attempts every minute. Therefore, DOD must also evaluate how a cyber intrusion or attack on one system could affect the entire missionin other words, DOD must assess vulnerabilities at a systemic level. Figure 1. As Jacquelyn Schneider notes, this type of deterrence involves the use of punishment or denial across domains of warfighting and foreign policy to deter adversaries from utilizing cyber operations to create physical or virtual effects.31 The literature has also examined the inverse aspect of cross-domain deterrencenamely, how threats in the cyber domain can generate instability and risk for deterrence across other domains. Counterintelligence Core Concerns and international terrorist True DoD personnel who suspect a coworker of possible espionage should report directly to your CI OR security Office Therefore, a fundamental issue is that both individual weapons programs already under development and fielded systems in the sustainment phase of the acquisition life cycle are beset by vulnerabilities. The operator HMI screens generally provide the easiest method for understanding the process and assignment of meaning to each of the point reference numbers. Instead, malicious actors could conduct cyber-enabled information operations with the aim of manipulating or distorting the perceived integrity of command and control. 48 Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Research, Development, and Acquisition, Chief Systems Engineer, Naval Systems of Systems Systems Engineering Guidebook, Volume II, Version 2.0 (Washington, DC: Headquarters Department of the Navy, November 6, 2006), 3. 47 Ibid., 25. It is common to find RTUs with the default passwords still enabled in the field. Ransomware. The attacker is also limited to the commands allowed for the currently logged-in operator. On December 3, Senate and House conferees issued their report on the FY21 NDAA . We also describe the important progress made in the fiscal year (FY) 2021 NDAA, which builds on the commissions recommendations. Control is generally, but not always, limited to a single substation. See also Martin C. Libicki, David Senty, and Julia Pollak, Hackers Wanted: An Examination of the Cybersecurity Labor Market (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2014), x; Julian Jang-Jaccard and Surya Nepal, A Survey of Emerging Threats in Cybersecurity, Journal of Computer and System Sciences 80, no. This article recommends the DoD adopt an economic strategy called the vulnerability market, or the market for zero-day exploits, to enhance system Information Assurance. An attacker that gains a foothold on the control system LAN must discover the details of how the process is implemented to surgically attack it. In recent years, that has transitioned to VPN access to the control system LAN. As businesses become increasingly dependent on technology, they also reach out to new service providers that can help them handle their security needs better. 3 John S. McCain National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2019, Pub. Defense Acquisition Regulations System, Attn: Ms. Kimberly Ziegler, OUSD(A&S)DPC(DARS), 3060 . Specifically, in Section 1647 of the FY16 NDAA, which was subsequently updated in Section 1633 of the FY20 NDAA, Congress directed DOD to assess the cyber vulnerabilities of each major weapons system.60 Although this process has commenced, gaps remain that must be remediated. DODIG-2019-106 (Washington, DC: DOD, July 26, 2019), 2, available at . (London: Macmillan, 1989); Robert Powell, Nuclear Deterrence Theory: The Search for Credibility. In the FY21 NDAA, Congress incorporated elements of this recommendation, directing the Secretary of Defense to institutionalize a recurring process for cybersecurity vulnerability assessments that take[s] into account upgrades or other modifications to systems and changes in the threat landscape.61 Importantly, Congress recommended that DOD assign a senior official responsibilities for overseeing and managing this processa critical step given the decentralization of oversight detailed hereinthus clarifying the National Security Agencys Cybersecurity Directorates role in supporting this program.62 In a different section of the FY21 NDAA, Congress updated language describing the Principal Cyber Advisors role within DOD as the coordinating authority for cybersecurity issues relating to the defense industrial base, with specific responsibility to synchronize, harmonize, de-conflict, and coordinate all policies and programs germane to defense industrial base cybersecurity, including acquisitions and contract enforcement on matters pertaining to cybersecurity.63. A person who is knowledgeable in process equipment, networks, operating systems and software applications can use these and other electronic means to gain access to the CS. 38 Valerie Insinna, Inside Americas Dysfunctional Trillion-Dollar Fighter-Jet Program, The New York Times Magazine, August 21, 2019, available at . Your small business may. Innovations in technology and weaponry have produced highly complex weapons systems, such as those in the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter, which possesses unparalleled technology, sensors, and situational awarenesssome of which rely on vulnerable Internet of Things devices.37 In a pithy depiction, Air Force Chief of Staff General David Goldfein describes the F-35 as a computer that happens to fly.38 However, the increasingly computerized and networked nature of these weapons systems makes it exponentially more difficult to secure them. Operational Considerations for Strategic Offensive Cyber Planning, Journal of Cybersecurity 3, no. 5 (2014), 977. The department is expanding its Vulnerability Disclosure Program to include all publicly accessible DOD information systems. Falcon 9 Starlink L24 rocket successfully launches from SLC-40 at Cape Canaveral Space Force Station, Florida, April 28, 2021 (U.S. Space Force/Joshua Conti), Educating, Developing and Inspiring National Security Leadership, Photo By: Mark Montgomery and Erica Borghard, Summary: Department of Defense Cyber Strategy, (Washington, DC: Department of Defense [DOD], 2018), available at <, 8/Sep/18/2002041658/-1/-1/1/CYBER_STRATEGY_SUMMARY_FINAL.PDF, Achieve and Maintain Cyberspace Superiority: Command Vision for U.S. Cyber Command, (Washington, DC: U.S. Cyber Command, 2018), available at <, https://www.cybercom.mil/Portals/56/Documents/USCYBERCOM%20Vision%20April%202018.pdf?ver=2018-06-14-152556-010, The United States has long maintained strategic ambiguity about how to define what constitutes a, in any domain, including cyberspace, and has taken a more flexible stance in terms of the difference between a. as defined in the United Nations charter. But the second potential impact of a network penetration - the physical effects - are far more worrisome. 4 As defined in Joint Publication 3-12, Cyberspace Operations (Washington, DC: The Joint Staff, June 8, 2018), The term blue cyberspace denotes areas in cyberspace protected by [the United States], its mission partners, and other areas DOD may be ordered to protect, while red cyberspace refers to those portions of cyberspace owned or controlled by an adversary or enemy. Finally, all cyberspace that does not meet the description of either blue or red is referred to as gray cyberspace (I-4, I-5). L. No. The National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) for Fiscal Year 2021 (FY21) is the most significant attempt ever undertaken by Congress to improve national cybersecurity and protect U.S. critical infrastructure from nation-state, non-state, and criminal behavior. Additionally, an attacker will dial every extension in the company looking for modems hung off the corporate phone system. Modems are used as backup communications pathways if the primary high-speed lines fail. 1 Build a more lethal. Then, in part due to inconsistencies in compliance, verification, and enforcement in the cybersecurity standards established in DFARS, in 2019 DOD issued the Cybersecurity Maturity Model Certification, which created new, tiered cybersecurity standards for defense contractors and was meant to build on the 2016 DFARS requirement.54 However, this has resulted in confusion about requirements, and the process for independently auditing and verifying compliance remains in nascent stages of development.55 At the same time, in the 2019 National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA), Congress took legislative action to ban government procurement of or contracting with entities that procure telecommunications technologies from specific Chinese firms, including Huawei and ZTE, and affiliated organizations. malware implantation) to permit remote access. 2 (2016), 6673; Nye, Deterrence and Dissuasion, 4471; Martin, (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2016); Aaron F. Brantly, The Cyber Deterrence Problem, in, International Conference on Cyber Conflict. Cyber threats to a control system refer to persons who attempt unauthorized access to a control system device and/or network using a data communications pathway. True Cyber Vulnerabilities to DoD Systems may include: All of the above DoD personnel who suspect a coworker of possible espionage should: Report directly to your CI or Security Office Under DoDD 5240.06 Reportable Foreign Intelligence Contacts, Activities, Indicators and Behaviors; which of the following is not reportable? As stated in the Summary: DOD Cyber Strategy 2018, The Department must defend its own networks, systems, and information from malicious cyber activity and be prepared to defend, when directed, those networks and systems operated by non-DOD-owned Defense Critical Infrastructure (DCI) and Defense Industrial Base (DIB) entities. Ensuring the Cyber Mission Force has the right size for the mission is important. The costs can range from a few hundred dollars to thousands, payable to cybercriminals in Bitcoin. , Adelphi Papers 171 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies. Encuentro Cuerpo Consular de Latinoamerica - Mesa de Concertacin MHLA 2 (February 2016). For example, China is the second-largest spender on research and development (R&D) after the United States, accounting for 21 percent of the worlds total R&D spending in 2015. As the 2017 National Security Strategy notes, deterrence today is significantly more complex to achieve than during the Cold War. The operator will see a "voodoo mouse" clicking around on the screen unless the attacker blanks the screen. This provides an added layer of protection because no communications take place directly from the control system LAN to the business LAN. 23 For some illustrative examples, see Robert Jervis, Some Thoughts on Deterrence in the Cyber Era, Journal of Information Warfare 15, no. JFQ. 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